scada – A2A Consulting

Climate Change & SF6 Gas

Many electricity Transmission and Distribution utilities use high-voltage electro-mechanical plant and switchgear containing Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF₆) synthetic gas.

SF₆ is used inside circuit breakers, reclosers, switchgear and wind turbines to extinguish the electrical arc when the contacts inside are separated; enabling the electrical circuit to be broken. The use of SF₆ gas allows equipment to be much smaller and more efficient.

Impact of SF6

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, SF₆ is the most potent greenhouse gas that it has evaluated, with a global warming potential of 23,900 times that of CO2 when compared over a 100-year period [1 Appendix 1]. All developed jurisdictions require the annual reporting of SF₆ usage [9][10][2].

SF₆ today contributes less than 1 percent of man made global warming, although is increasing annually [2].

SF₆ circuit breakers typically have a combination of static seals (O-rings and gaskets) as well as dynamic seal assemblies. Over time, seals degrade due to environmental conditions and exposure.

The IEC ‘default annual leakage rates’ of SF₆ for a single ‘gas insulated switchgear and circuit breaker applications’ is 0.0089 (i.e. less than 1%) [1]. Major manufacturers have demonstrated leakage rates below 0.1% per year, following decades of operational experience and extreme temperature testing [8].

‘Gas insulated switchgear and circuit breaker applications’ have a SF₆ capacity ranging from 1.8 kg (for a 22kV Distribution Recloser) to 49.6 kg (for a 500kV substation circuit breaker).

Using leakage rates of 0.1%, and 2019 regional carbon prices [5] this could cost power utilities between $600 to $17k (AUD), or £1k to £35k (GBP) per circuit breaker annually. Large utilities could own hundreds (Transmission) or thousands (Distribution) of SF₆ circuit breakers [9] and these costs would accumulate significantly over time.

Condition-Based Maintenance Asset Strategy

SF₆ gas levels are typically recorded during routine (e.g. monthly, bi-monthly, quarterly) equipment inspections on-site.

When a trend of lowering SF₆ gas pressure is observed, the cause of the leak is subsequently investigated and (hopefully) rectified per the equipment manufacturer’s instructions. Non-evasive ‘laser leak detection’ technologies can help to pinpoint the source of SF₆ leaks.

*High-Level SF6 Data Flow*
*from the Field (Left) to Reporting (Right)*

The presence of a ‘high leakage rate alarm’ SCADA alarm may be forwarded digitally to the system operator, via the SCADA system, to trigger a medium/low priority inspection.

*High-Level SF6 Data Flow and OT Architecture*
*from the Field (Left) to Operator (Right)*

At the end of life, disposal of the used SF₆ gas is either recycled, or disposed by incineration.

Alternatives for SF₆ are commercially available for use in electrical switchgear at low-to-medium voltages. Solutions for use at higher-voltages are more challenging, although pilot installations do exist at 145kV.

The technical life of circuit breakers and switchgear is typically around 40 years and the ongoing cost of SF₆ will be a factor in planning for replacement.

This condition-based asset strategy leaves scope for SF₆ to be leaked in-between routine inspections and for response to be reactive in nature, with associated environmental and financial impacts.

In the meantime, it is prudent to measure and manage SF₆ gas usage with a ‘Real-Time’ condition-based maintenance strategy, and offset emissions.

‘Real-Time’ Condition-Based Maintenance Strategy

Substations and Distribution Automation equipment (particularly modern substations utilizing IEC 61850 protocols) have access to a wealth of digital data on the condition and performance of circuit breakers and switchgear.

SF₆ gas pressure can be digitally monitored via (e.g. DNP3 digital inputs) alarms for ‘high leakage rate alarm’ and measurements (e.g. DNP3 analog inputs) for ‘leakage rate’; shown below. If needed, a transducer or SF₆ monitor can be retrofitted to closed pressure equipment to provide the capability.

SF6 Leakage Rate & Alarm Threshold Example

However, the Real-Time data available on-site is often aggregated or distilled for forwarding to a central location. This is often due to human or technological constraints such as:

Limiting the information overload to the personnel administering alarms and measurements; to raise a work request or job request for remedial action
Bandwidth limiting the volume of data transmitted
Computational processing power limiting the volume of data collected, interpreted and forwarded

Also, in most cases the SCADA connected equipment requires human intervention (i.e. operator or asset manager) to raise a work request or job request for remedial action i.e. SCADA and/or data historian systems not integrated with Enterprise Resource Planner.

High-Level SF6 Data Flow and OT/IT Architecture
from the Field (Left) to Reporting (Right)

To enable effective analytics and decision-making will often require end-to-end re-configuration or upgrade:

On-site product relays or controllers
On-site substation computing such as Remote Terminal Units (RTU), gateways or regional data concentrators
Head-end Real-Time SCADA systems such as Energy Management System, Distribution Management System
Data-historian, data warehouse including ETL and reporting capability
Enterprise Resource Planner (ERP) and/or Asset Management System (AMS)
New backhaul telecommunications circuits and data center hosting capacity

An alternative, expedited approach is for SF₆ monitoring and reporting via a vendor subscription (additional $/month), typically by retrofitting (and powering) the vendor’s SF₆ monitor and a 3G/4G cellular modem to each circuit breaker (shown below).

*High-Level SF6 Data Flow and ‘As-a-Service’ Architecture*
*from the Field (Left) to Reporting (Right)*

With the new real-time information, SF₆ leakage can be detected instantly and earlier than physical inspection and with data analytics unlock capabilities for preventative maintenance. This may involve identifying and reacting early to trends and correlation within different operating environments (e.g. weather, altitude), vendors, products, installation practices or workmanship.

Real-time monitoring may be a cost effective strategy to manage carbon emissions, compared to manual inspections and proactive replacement.

Change for Climate Change

An increasing environmental focus, compliance requirements and carbon markets is expected over the years to come.

Utilities and their partners that are ready and prepared to manage their SF₆ emissions will benefit from avoiding the rush and actively managing the brand impact, if/when the legislative change occurs.

Any new environmental obligations and adopted carbon pricing models could provide an exemption to existing, in-service equipment, only applying to new equipment installations; subject to a grandfathered strategy to transition by a certain date (e.g. replace on failure or beyond economic repair with compliant equipment).

Or an approach could be to plant a LOT of trees or actively trade in carbon credit markets.

In most cases there is existing telemetry and operational technology capability to leverage, ask me how to improve your asset management strategy and connect your IT/OT businesses and technologies to extract these benefits and deploy at speed today.

References:

[1] https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-07/national-greenhouse-accounts-factors-august-2019.pdf

[2] https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-49567197#:~:text=Cheap%20and%20non%2Dflammable%2C%20SF6,stations%20in%20towns%20and%20cities.

[3] https://www.clipsal.com/faq/detail?ID=FA226304

[4] https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-02/documents/conf00_krondorfer.pdf

[5] https://carbonpricingdashboard.worldbank.org/

[6] https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-02/documents/conf06_bessede.pdf

[7] https://1library.net/document/myjd7g2y-alternatives-to-sf-in-hv-circuit-breaker-insulation.html

[8] https://assets.new.siemens.com/siemens/assets/api/uuid:57363d51dd291bd91128dd7665ae64e808f2fdf2/high-voltage-circuit-breakers-portfolio-en.pdf

[9] https://www.aer.gov.au/system/files/PWC%20-%2014.7%20AMP%20High%20Voltage%20Circuit%20Breakers%20-%2028%20February%202018.pdf

[10] https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-02/documents/rak_presentation_2017_workshop.pdf

Uncategorized

Top 5 Considerations for a Utility Wireless Telecommunications Strategy

In developing strategies and business cases for utility telecommunications networks, there are 5 considerations in my experience that set the direction and drive the narrative.

Utilities and infrastructure intensive industries (including transportation, energy and mining) currently own and operate a range of wireless technologies to meet the operational requirements for a safe and reliable service.

There are many use cases for wireless voice and data services for utilities including:

Land Mobile Radio systems providing critical Push-to-Talk communications during catastrophe to a mobile and increasingly connected workforce
Mesh radio networks providing Smart / Advanced Metering features such as billing information and remote disconnect (and emerging customer ‘black start’ inverter controls)
Broadcast radio networks for telemetry and SCADA to monitor and remotely control plant and equipment
Microwave radio providing the back-haul data pipes to bring it all together at a central control/data center.

Often the telecommunications solution is deployed at a point in time by use case, resulting in independent, bespoke networks of proprietary technologies – and a physical library of manuals and instructions!

This private telecommunications infrastructure collection is often complemented with a costly grab bag of mobile data 2G/3G/4G SIM cards from a local carrier for smartphones and mobile computing, vehicle telematics, revenue metering, coverage infill and additional Internet of Things sensors such as equipment monitoring and fault indication.

The Operational Technology applications required to service changing customer needs are evolving, and the demand for mission-critical wireless data continues to increase; whilst needing to maximize shareholder return (i.e. maintaining or reducing expenses, recovering regulated investment).

To aggregate wireless data needs, many utilities are considering their wireless telecommunications strategy and the business case for deploying a private wireless network, such as evaluation the of architectures and technologies including 3GPP standard LTE, LTE-M, Digital Mobile Radio, P25 Phase II or WiSun Alliance mesh.

Below are the top five considerations for a wireless technology that are the most sensitive to the options analysis and the cost model outputs used to develop a compelling business case.

1. Changes to external obligations

There may be an external trigger, either proposed or eventuated, that forces a re-evaluation of the utilities current wireless technology mix. It could be a change to a legal obligation, contract expiry or equipment End of Life announcement. This consideration will likely drive the timing of a wireless network investment.

Wireless communications likely require a frequency assignment to operate, with licensed radio frequencies providing increased certainty and security to the operating environment (compared to unlicensed). The frequency licenses are administered and managed by national agencies such as by the ACMA (Aus), FCC (US) or Ofcom (UK). On occasions, there are changes to the license rules to maximize the wider utilization of the finite (and very valuable) radio spectrum; requiring action by the license holder (such as reconfiguration or equipment replacement) and possibly the radio equipment vendors (such as product redesign).

Examples in the US include the 3.5 GHz CBRS frequency band changes (affecting utilities with IEEE 802.16 WiMax deployments), 900 MHz frequency (affecting utilities with Sensis and Harris OpenSky deployments), 450 MHz re-banding (affecting LMR deployments). Similar changes are anticipated in Australia’s draft Five-year spectrum outlook 2020–24.

Cyber security is not yet a legal obligation for distribution utilities, but if mandated, the rigor of compliance monitoring of data ‘access, audit and authentication’ can be expected to emerge in time.

Electronic component supplier and vendor product road maps would also trigger change, such as the retirement of analog radio products.

2. Increased bandwidth of technology use cases

The total bandwidth requirement for a geographic area (i.e. density) drives frequency spectrum needs which is a significant financial (and technical) consideration.

The total wireless bandwidth required by the utility use cases for a given geographic area is the volume of equipment x size of the data (/second). The geographic area is determined by the operating environment (i.e. terrain, noise) and radio propagation characteristics of the frequency spectrum options.

Volume of equipment

The utility will require targeted telemetry and remote control of plant and equipment. The density of field automation will continue to increase (i.e. switches, valves, indicators), advanced (smart) meters will come online and the connected field workforce will roam between for maintenance and emergency fault response.

Also emerging is data connectivity of behind the meter devices (such as inverters, electric vehicles), and unmanned aerial vehicles (i.e. drones) for field surveys.

Size of the use case data

The use case requirements will inform the size of the data per second. Three key factors are that inform the data size are :

Payload and number of use cases, such as devices, equipment and data ‘points’
Resolution and sampling rates, also known as scanning, refresh, polling rates or frames per second
Whether data encryption is enabled (or not).

Often in collecting the use cases and functional requirements from stakeholders, it is very easy for size of the data to blow out based on these factors. Collecting and critically prioritizing requirements will require an informed discussion to shift:

from “I want all telemetry data now, encrypted”

to “I need these critical read-only data points within 30 seconds of the change of event”.

Based on the frequency spectrum availability, it will likely be a case of prioritizing the use cases within the constrained bandwidth.

3. Reduced unit costs

For mission-critical SCADA applications, a ruggedized modem typically costs $1000 +. Essential features include serial data ports and industrial housing ratings.

An application specific data-radio can be replaced with an application agnostic data modem (even if serial data traffic is encapsulated over IP).

With the benefit of international standards and demand, commodity equipment and components, the cost of field telecommunications user equipment can be significantly reduced(although, recent industry examples with branded modems appear to have not yet realized this financial benefit).

The physical installation can be streamlined (e.g. a field worker can install on site, and technician commission remotely), but the typical labor costs of installing a modern data modem are about the same.

4. Corporate strategy and priorities

The ‘bottom up’ utility telecommunications strategy often calls for limitless wireless data and a cautious migration to the latest technology, with an inferred corporate desire to maintain or reduce capital and operating budgets and employee headcount.

The corporate ‘top down’ assumed priorities will likely be confirmed during approvals, in which scope or schedule will be adjusted; rather than the necessary rethink of the ownership and operating models require to meet the corporates objectives for rapidly evolving data needs and technologies.

For a power distribution utility, the current corporate green/future energy strategies and priorities are increasingly creating an environment for a ‘top down’ telecommunications strategy. This is similar to the top-down utility telecommunications strategies to deploy optic fiber (‘private wired broadband’) during dotcom bubble in the late 1990s. This optic fiber since has proven valuable for the SCADA connectivity of substations and migration to digital tele-protection schemes.

As distributed generation (i.e. solar panels) replaces centralized energy sources (i.e. fossil fuel generation), the transmission and distribution networks are experiencing reduced total electricity demand (although not necessarily daily peak demand). Without a change in pricing structure and/or regulation, the financial result for a utility is reduced tariff revenue and reduced recoverable investment and expenses. Also, whether based on finance, optics or virtue signaling, large investments in fossil fuel or nuclear generation and poles-and-wires infrastructure is increasingly difficult to demonstrate whole of life financial (or carbon?) benefit.

Particularly for private investor-owned utilities, shareholders will require to back-fill deferred or cancelled projects with new, capex-intensive investments to enable the ‘energy transformation’ and ‘grid modernization’ (and avoid stranded assets, and ideally reduce opex).

For a private investor owned utility, the result is a ‘top down’ corporate driver to spend (quickly, and recover costs; OPGW was a favorite and radio spectrum is emerging) on telecommunications and cyber security projects, rather than a ‘bottom up’ pragmatic asset management driver. Although, consideration is to be given as to whether this will create another islanded telecommunications network…

5. Partnership opportunities

There is a drive for a ‘digital economy’, ‘4th industrial revolution’ and ‘rural broadband’ and internet access for everybody.

Utilities hold a number of assets (land, towers, poles, conduit, easements and optic fiber cables) and thousands, if not millions, of potential data subscribers (the use cases and data of #2) that are valuable to the cause. Utilities also typically have a relatively smoother pathway to deploying physical infrastructure through access to routine environmental and land permitting processes and access to cheap credit.

There is the potential to generate additional revenue or (more likely) reduce or offset telecommunications costs (the grab bag referred to above) through collaboration and partnership with neighboring utilities and telecommunications providers.

In many jurisdictions there is a precedent, some power distribution utilities leveraged partnerships to deploy optic fiber (‘private wired broadband’) during the 1990’s, and then some divested the assets to form the backbone of today’s major telecommunications operators. For example, transmission utility NYPA has added the lease of excess bandwidth as a sweetener to their recent wireless business case.

Unless there is a corporate commitment to do so (see #4 above), this potential unregulated revenue is usually a minor consideration in business case development today. Although telecommunications companies and utilities currently (legally have to) work together on structure ‘co-siting’; any revenue derived from hosting radio antennas is a bonus and negligible to an options analysis.

Collaboration and partnerships can be a game changer in developing a (Net Present Value positive) wireless business case, particularly a broadband or Industrial IoT wireless network. Nurturing the deal is a chicken and egg scenario; requiring both corporate strategic direction, executive support, new skillsets and possibly government support for success. The benefits of this collaboration will be extended to the community, such as emergency services, neighboring utilities and telecommunications carriers.

Summary

Utilities require wireless data for prudent asset management, efficient operations, and to position for changing customer behavior.

There are 5 factors to consider to set the direction and develop a prudent utility telecommunications strategy and business case:

Changes to external obligations
Increased bandwidth of technology use cases
Reduced unit costs
Corporate strategy and priorities
Partnership opportunities

The understanding of each consideration will help set direction and streamline funding approvals, contracts, project delivery and ongoing operations.

This article has been prepared based on my experience developing utility telecommunications strategies and does not reflect the opinion of my clients.

Please comment or feel free to reach out to me personally to discuss further.

Digital Transformation, Perspectives

‘Private LTE’ for Smart Grids: Yes! (but no…?)

A pipe dream years ago, ‘Private LTE’ is growing in utility circles and a buzz at the #Distributech conference I attended in February 2019.

Utilities have a range of current and emerging use cases and smart grid applications to meet customer service objectives and to remain relevant with new services.

These needs are currently enabled by ‘stacking’ private, proprietary narrowband wireless networks for priority ‘mission critical’ voice and data services, and complementing with commercial telecommunications carrier services.

If all of these services are aggregated, including Push-to-Talk’ voice and smart metering, an upgradable industry-standard wireless broadband solution can meet the needs of tomorrow.

The solution would be designed and operated to meet the reliability and security requirements of the most demanding ‘mission critical’ utility use cases.

However, this is contingent on access to valuable spectrum.

US emergency services with similar ‘mission critical’ reliability and security needs are migrating to ‘FirstNet’ mobile broadband, on federal provision of 700 MHz spectrum.

Investor-owned Utilities (IOU) do not (and in my opinion should not) have such a luxury.

Licensed spectrum can be acquired in competition with telcos; an expensive proposition. As such, the telecommunications industry has progressed technology to manage the precious spectrum asset including roaming, carrier aggregation, network slicing, spectrum arbitrage, prioritization, preemption and Virtual Network Operator (VNO).

Any IOU submission to a regulator for capital recovery for a broadband spectrum and network is likely (and rightly so) to raise red flags.

Forward-thinking utilities can demonstrate prudency and sweeten the deal by bringing telcos millions of subscribers and offsetting the cost by bartering access to their valuable Transmission and Distribution assets: overhead structures, conduit, easements and land.

To summarize, is there a telecommunications platform available to enable the smart grid?

Yes! Access to a industry-standard wireless, mobile broadband technology can meet all utility requirements
Yes! The telecommunications solution can be designed to meet stringent ‘mission critical’ reliability and security needs, while sharing valuable spectrum
Yes! With collaboration, asset arbitrage and/or recycling, broadband solutions and services can be accessed at a lower TCO (compared to today’s suite)
But no, the ownership model does not need to be private.

And this, for utilities, will be a new world of IT/OT convergence….

Service management rather than asset management!

Please leave a comment, share or connect, I’d be interested in your thoughts.

An Engineer Abroad, Energy & Infrastructure, Perspectives

Community Energy Storage IS HERE IN WA!

I recently visited the “PowerBank” community battery energy storage trial in the sprawling residential suburbs of Meadow Springs and Port Kennedy in Perth, Western Australia. Both of these suburbs are ranked in the top 30 suburbs in Western Australia for rooftop solar uptake [1].

WA has embraced Distributed Energy Resources (DER) with one in three households in the South West Integrated System now generating their own renewable power with photovoltaic (PV) solar panels and growing at around 2,000 households a month.

These suburbs have experienced continued growth and is peak demand is encroaching on network capacity limits. To date, capacity constraints have been mitigated through load transfers between distribution substations [2]. Despite the high penetration of PV, the distributed generation contributes minimal demand reduction at time of substation peak load in the early evening (i.e. the “duck curve” 🦆). The 2021 forecast distribution network capacity of the region is shown below [3].

Technological developments in energy storage provide a new utility-grade solution to manage the power distribution and flatten the load profile (i.e. 🦆🔨):

Peak Shaving: Discharge at times of peak demand to avoid or reduce demand.
Load Shifting: Shift energy consumption from one point in time to another.
Demand Response: Discharge instantly in response to signals from a demand response aggregator to alleviate peaks in system load.
Emergency Backup: Provide intermediate backup power in the event of a supply interruption.

Community energy storage deployment has been green-lighted in WA with the Electricity Industry Amendment Bill 2019 [4] and the release of the Distributed Energy Resources Roadmap [5] in April 2020. The DER Roadmap recommends to install community batteries in locations that are most in need of power balancing.

The PowerBank community battery is an Australian-first trial to integrate bulk solar battery storage into the existing grid that also provides customers with a retail storage option [6].

The local customers don’t have to purchase a behind-the-meter battery, as the local Distribution utility, owns and operates a Tesla branded PowerPack standing proudly in the local park and is featured on their recent advertising campaigns.

Tesla’s PowerPack is commercially available modular battery bank for utility and business energy storage. Each 232 kWh Powerpack is a DC energy storage device containing 16 individual battery pods, a thermal control system and sensors to monitor and report on cell level performance [7].

The PowerBank trial has installed two modules (@ 232 kWh each) and is able to virtually store up to 8 kWh a day of excess generation for 50 trial subscribers (approx 464 / 8).

Although I anticipate this trial will not be operated islanded from the power network, assuming each customers consumption is 2 kWh, these 50 subscribers could potentially ride through an outage up to 5 hours (approx. 464 / 50 / 2).

Standing next to the install there was limited buzzing noise, but as a large white box within a community park, one flagship site has already been a target for vandals 😕.

I’ve been unable to source budgets or project costs for the trial. The Telsla PowerPack costs in the region of USD $172k for a 232 kWh unit [8]. The installation also requires foundations, trenching, low voltage cabling, terminations, protection or fusing, and… reconfiguration of the park’s irrigation system plus graffiti cleanup. I’d anticipate a commissioned site to manage the load profile of 50 customers may cost up to AUD 500k.

Tesla provide a 15-year “no defect” and “energy retention” warranty for the Powerpack. Tesla guarantee that the energy capacity will be at least a percentage (within a range up to 80%) of its nameplate capacity during specified time periods, depending on the product, battery pack size and/or region of installation, subject to use restrictions or kWh throughput caps. Tesla also offer extended warranties, such as 10 or 20 year performance guarantees [9].

The PowerPack utilizes the Tesla’s Microgrid Control System application available across their product range. The application provides a range of alarms and system status parameters required to operate the energy storage system with a shiny user interface [10].

Although it appears limited in Real-Time information for asset management of the battery cells such as cell degradation and capacity. IT/OT convergence is coming for power electronics! In that, rather than the use of an infrastructure asset management framework (such as ISO 55000) and internal operations, the mindset shifts to managing service and performance through warranty and support agreements.

Once (“partnered”) within the Tesla ecosystem, the Microgrid application can be scaled to other energy use cases such as distributed generation and electric vehicles.

The PowerPack provides an Ethernet port for access to Modbus TCP/IP and DNP3 protocols and Rest API [12]. This would provide interface to Tesla’s application or the Distribution utilities Distribution Management System or Distribution Energy Resource Management System (DERMS).

There was no visible antenna mounting to provide strong connectivity. I presume there is a 4G modem providing remote SCADA (and configuration access, firmware updates etc) within the kiosk. The connectivity will be valuable as it also appears there was no SCADA connectivity on the upstream transformer, distribution frame or ring main unit. At both sites there was 2 bars (-113 dBm) of 4G signal using the commercial Telstra mobile network.

If and when the community storage is deployed at scale, and under all operating conditions (incl. black start), combined with electric vehicle charging stations and distribution market operator (or virtual power plant) use cases, the control systems and telecommunications requirements are required to also scale.

Energy storage provides a new solution to manage the load profile where customers are both consuming (demand) and generating (supply). The application of energy storage technology such as a community storage on the low voltage distribution network is helpful to evaluate the solution to reduce energy costs and carbon footprint. This trial will inform technical and economical evaluations, and also facilitate regulatory, governance and operational integration.

References:

[1] https://westernpower.com.au/community/news-opinion/who-really-is-number-1-for-pv-in-perth/

[2] https://westernpower.com.au/media/1995/non-network-options-report-mandurah-load-area-2016-pdf-version-of-dm13874165-13868073.pdf

[3] https://westernpower.maps.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id=21af5edc59034456b59c35be31365cdf

[4] https://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Parliament/Bills.nsf/BillProgressPopup?openForm&ParentUNID=553B64DCFCE397DE482584BF000BBDB2#:~:text=Electricity%20Industry%20Amendment%20Bill%202019,Bill%20No.&text=The%20purpose%20of%20this%20bill,electricity%20networks%20in%20the%20Pilbara.

[5] https://www.wa.gov.au/government/distributed-energy-resources-roadmap

[6] https://westernpower.com.au/our-energy-evolution/projects-and-trials/powerbank-community-battery-storage/

[7] https://www.tesla.com/en_AU/powerpack

[8] https://electrek.co/2020/03/31/tesla-powerpack-price-commercial-solar/

[9] https://ir.tesla.com/node/20456/html

[10] https://www.gemenergy.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Powerpack_Microgrid-System-Brochure.pdf